In this lesson, we take a look at PARTICIPLE CLAUSES and REDUCED RELATIVE CLAUSES. Both of these structures are used to join two clauses together to make one sentence. These are also a type of relative clause, but are considered a little more difficult to form. You will often find these in more sophisticated texts, as well as in literature.
If you would like more information on basic RELATIVE CLAUSES, you can check out our lesson on DEFINING AND NON-DEFININING RELATIVE CLAUSES and RELATIVE CLAUSES WITH PREPOSITIONS.
This lesson will frequently mention the PASSIVE VOICE, and if you would like more information on this, you can check out WHY WE USE THE PASSIVE VOICE and HOW TO FORM THE PASSIVE VOICE.
FORM:
PARTICIPLE CLAUSES can appear in two different ways:
1. The ADVERBIAL form
Working hard, the people are building the house.
Here, the participle clause is placed in 'sentence adverb' position, or before the main clause (and separated by a comma).
2. The ADJECTIVAL form
The people, working hard, are building the house.
Here, the participle clause is placed after the subject, or the thing or person we are talking about. The comma will depend on whether the participle clause is a defining or non-defining relative clause.
FUNCTION:
There are three types of PARTICIPLE CLAUSE.
1. PRESENT PARTICIPLE CLAUSE
(BASE SENTENCE) Jack read the morning paper. Jack drank a cup of tea. Jack read the morning paper. Jack was drinking a cup of tea. Jack read the morning paper and/while he was drinking a cup of tea. Jack, who was drinking a cup of tea, read the morning paper.
Drinking a cup of tea, Jack read the morning paper. (adverbial form)
Jack, drinking a cup of tea, read the morning paper. (adjectival form)
There are three variations of the 'base sentence', from most basic (two simple sentences) to more complex (a sentence with a relative clause).
The PRESENT PARTICIPLE CLAUSE takes the verb from the relative clause (or second clause) and turns it into a 'verb -ing', while removing the relative pronoun and auxiliary verb 'be'. We can only use this structure with ACTIVE sentences (i.e. NOT passive).
In most cases, this structure means that the actions of both clauses (i.e. drink and read) are happening at the same time. However, in some cases (see below), the structure can show a cause and effect (or reason and result) meaning.
Here is another example:
(BASE SENTENCE) Sally missed the final scenes. Sally slept during the movie. Sally missed the final scenes because she slept during the movie. Sally, who slept during the movie, missed the final scenes.
Sleeping during the movie, Sally missed the final scenes. (adverbial form)
Sally, sleeping during the movie, missed the final scenes. (adjectival form)
2. PAST PARTICIPLE CLAUSES
(BASE SENTENCE) The video is about participle clauses. The video is presented by Paul. The video, which is presented by Paul, is about participle clauses.
Presented by Paul, the video is about participle clauses. (adverbial form)
The video, presented by Paul, is about participle clauses. (adjectival form)
The PAST PARTICIPLE CLAUSE is only used with a passive verb in the relative (or second) clause. In this case, the passive in the relative clause is 'is presented'. Remember that passive is formed with BE + PAST PARTICIPLE.
In most cases, this structure means that the actions of both clauses (i.e. is and present) are happening at the same time. However, in some cases (see below), the structure can show a cause and effect (or reason and result) meaning.
(BASE SENTENCE) The movie was very successful. The movie was superbly written. The movie was very successful because it was superbly written. The movie, which was superbly written, was very successful.
Superbly written, the movie was very successful. (adverbial form)
The movie, superbly written, was very successful. (adjectival form)
3. PERFECT PARTICIPLE CLAUSES
(BASE SENTENCE) Karine made the cake. Karine served it to her friends. Karine made the cake and then she served it to her friends. Karine, who (had) made the cake, served it to her friends.
Having made the cake, Karine served it to her friends. (adverbial form)
Karine, having made the cake, served it to her friends. (adjectival form: much less common)
The PERFECT PARTICIPLE CLAUSE is made using 'HAVING + PAST PARTICIPLE'. The verb of the relative (or second) clause is turned into the past participle.
This structure is specifically used to describe one action happening after another action in the past. You can see this in the timeline below.
This structure is more commonly used to describe one action happening after another action in the past than the present participle clause. Sometimes confusion may occur depending on the actions in the situation. See what happens when we use the same example but using a present participle clause.
Making the cake, Karine served it to her friends.
In this case, both actions are happening at the same time, in the past. This creates a problem. It is not a grammatical problem, but it is illogical, as it is NOT possible to both be making a cake and serving it at the same time. Therefore, it is better to use the PERFECT PARTICIPLE CLAUSE when talking about a sequence of events or to show cause and effect in the past.
WHEN CAN I FORM A PARTICIPLE CLAUSE?
To form a participle clause from two existing clauses, you need to ask the following questions:
Is there a conjunction? YES - remove the conjunction NO - continue to #2
Are the 'subjects' the same? YES - remove the first subject NO - you can NOT form a participle clause A participle clause can only be formed when the subjects of both clauses are the same.
Is the verb... 1. ACTIVE AND HAPPENING AT THE SAME TIME? - use 'verb +ing' (present participle clause) 2. PASSIVE - use past participle clause 3. ACTIVE AND HAPPENING BEFORE THE OTHER ACTION? - use 'having + past participle' (perfect participle clause) Don't forget to remove the auxiliary verb 'be' from the verb if present. Don't forget to insert any necessary commas. Often, a comma will replace a conjunction in this structure.
Let's see this in action.
Example 1
He was running to the bus stop and he tripped over.
1. Yes, there is a conjunction. Remove it.
2. Yes, the subjects are the same. Remove the first one.
3. The verb is active and happening at the same time. Use a present participle clause and remove the auxiliary 'be'.
Running to the bus stop, he tripped over. (present participle clause)
Example 2
I studied at university. Then, I got a job.
1. Yes, there is a linking word (not a conjunction, but it acts like one). Remove it.
2. Yes, the subjects are the same. Remove the first one.
3. The verb is active and happening before the other action. Use a perfect participle clause. Turn 'studied' into 'having studied'.
Having studied at university, I got a job. (perfect participle clause)
Example 3
The movie, which was directed by Spielberg, was good.
1. Yes, there is a conjunction. It is the relative pronoun. Remove it.
2. Yes, the subjects are the same. 'Which' refers to 'the movie'.
3. The verb is passive. Use a past participle clause. Remove the auxiliary 'be'.
The movie, directed by Spielberg, was good. (past participle clause)
Example 4
We sat at home and waited for the rain to stop.
1.Yes, there is a conjunction. Remove it.
2.Yes, the subjects are the same. The second one has been omitted because it's not grammatically necessary. In this case, remove the first one and move it to the second clause.
3. The verb is active and happening at the same time. Use a present participle clause. Turn 'sat' into 'sitting'.
Sitting at home, we waited for the rain to stop. (present participle clause)
Example 5
If you cook the meat slowly, it tastes better.
1. Yes, there is a conjunction. Remove it.
2. No, the subjects are NOT the same (you =/= it). Normally, you would stop here. However, it is possible to change this sentence so that both subjects are the same. If we make the first clause passive, then the subjects will be the same. Now, the sentence looks like this.
"If the meat is cooked slowly, it tastes better."
Now remove the first subject, and change 'it' to 'the meat'.
3.The verb is passive. Use a past participle clause. Remove the auxiliary 'be'.
Cooked slowly, the meat tastes better. (past participle clause)