Remember in our last lesson, we use relative clauses to join two clauses together to form one sentence. This is a good way to reduce the number of words you use, and also to make your language more natural, and overall better.
In this lesson, we will explore some advanced uses of relative clauses. In the following cases, the relative pronoun is now a relative pronoun phrase (2 or more words together) and has a very specific meaning. We will learn those by their different uses and contexts.
1. TO TALK ABOUT QUANTITY
The following sentences are not joined and do not have relative clauses yet.
I have five siblings. Two of them are lawyers.
There are many active political parties here. Many of them hold great influence.
Both sentences follow the same structure. The first sentence introduces a specific or unspecific number of things, and the second talks about a smaller or specific number of those things. The main difference between the sentences is formality of the contexts. The first is quite informal (i.e. my family), and the second much more formal (i.e. the political system). For more sophisticated and formal topics we can use the "# of which/whom" structure to join the clauses together.
There are many active political parties here, many of which hold great influence.
This structure follows this form:
In this table, the # values are used when there are 3 or more things or people in our main clause. There are many possibilities for the # value, and you can be as specific or unspecific as you want to be. When we talk about things, we use which, and when we talk about people, we use whom. This cannot be changed in anyway.
When we talk about 2 things in the main clause, we use the following # values as described in the table below.
In this case, neither refers to 0%, one refers to 50%, both to 100%. You cannot use none or all for the # value when we talk about 2 things or people.
A common mistake here is using them instead of which or whom.
e.g. Five people came to the rally with me, two of them were bilingual. (incorrect)
e.g. Five people came to the rally with me, two of whom were bilingual. (correct)
We use them as an object pronoun. Typically, you would see this when no relative clause is used to join two clauses, but instead, as the subject of a second, separate sentence.
Five people came to the rally with me. Two of them were bilingual. (correct)
So which is better? This depends on the register (formal or informal style) of your context. If the topic is an everyday subject (i.e. sport, hobbies, food etc.) and you're speaking to someone familiar, I would use the second version (...two of them). If the context is more formal (i.e. an essay, professional speech or presentation, academic writing etc.), I would use the first one (...two of whom).
2. TO TALK ABOUT RESULT
The following two expressions have the same meaning as 'so'. We use so to talk about the result of another action or situation.
The police presence on the streets has increased significantly over the past year, so there is now less visible crime.
We can see the cause and effect relationship here. The cause is more police and the effect is less crime. We can replace so with as a result of which.
The police presence on the streets has increased significantly over the past year, as a result of which there is now less visible crime.
You have to be careful with this structure because 'so' is a much more versatile word than the phrase 'as a result of which'. 'So' can be used regardless of time (i.e. past, present or future), however, 'as a result of which' can only be used with actions ranging from the past to the present. See the following examples:
During this round of hiring, there was an overwhelming number of applicants, as a result of which we have had to stop giving feedback to those we rejected.
The current general manager has failed to perform his duties, as a result of which he has unfortunately been let go.
More and more students have become less interested in pursuing a career in science, as a result of which educational authorities are gravely concerned about a future that is dependent on scientists.
In each case, the first part of the sentence (the main clause) took place in the past, using either a past simple tense or a present perfect tense. The second part of the sentence (the relative clause or result) takes place either in the past or present, using either a present simple or present perfect tense.
If we want to talk about result in the future, we can use 'in which case'. Check out the following sentence using 'so' and 'in which case'.
I've heard it might rain tomorrow, so if that is the case, I'll stay home. (no relative clause) I've heard it might rain tomorrow, in which case I'll stay home. (with relative clause)
The news said many people got sick at that restaurant, so I don't think I'll go there anymore. (no relative clause) The news said many people got sick at that restaurant, in which case I don't think I'll go there anymore. (with relative clause)
In these cases, the first part of the sentence can take place at any time (the first example is in the future, the second in the past). The second part of the sentence refers to a future action, typically with the modal verb 'will' to indicate a spontaneous future action. Here are some more examples:
It looks like they won't approve my visa, in which case I'll just return home and work for my old company.
There's a real big chance that he might get elected president, in which case I'm going to move north.
Without support from both the public and private sector, the animals are definitely going to become extinct, in which case we really need to do something about it immediately.
3. TO TALK ABOUT TIME
We can use since when to mean since + time.
Disneyland first opened in 1955. Since 1955/then millions of people have visited each year. (no relative clause) Disneyland first opened in 1955, since when millions of people have visited each year. (with relative clause)
We typically use a since time phrase with the present perfect tense. The first part of the sentence introduces a completed action in the past (i.e. past simple) with some indication of time. The second part contains a present perfect tense which indicates an action that started in the past and continues to today. Here are some further examples:
Quentin Tarantino released his first movie in 1992, since when he has created hit after hit after hit on the big screen.
I first travelled abroad when I was 5, since when I have visited over 30 countries in 30 years.
McDonald's first opened in 1937 in Monrovia California, since when this fast food restaurant has exploded all over the world to over 30,000 outlets today.
We can use at which point to mean at + time.
I waited for her outside the restaurant till 7pm. At 7pm/At that point I gave up and went home. (no relative clause) I waited for her outside the restaurant till 7pm, at which point I gave up and went home. (with relative clause)
We use this to indicate that one action happens after another action, or a sequence of actions. The first action (waiting) finishes at 7pm and the second action (give up and go home) starts at 7pm. This structure can be used in any time period, but it is typically used in the past. Here are some further examples:
We had been married for 12 years when I discovered that he had cheated on me, at which point I saw my lawyer and got a divorce.
The company had been losing business for over 5 years and, in 2012, the shareholders became fed up with the CEO, at which point they filed a motion to have him removed.
All students are required to contribute to the student fund in their first year, at which point they have the choice whether to continue paying or not for the remainder of their degree.
We can use by which time to mean by that time (=finished no later than).
The war ended in 1945. By that time, millions of people had lost their lives. (no relative clause) The war ended in 1945, by which time millions of people had lost their lives. (with relative clause)
We use this to indicate that an action or situation is finished or complete no later than the time mentioned in the other clause. In this case, the time (or end point) is 1945. The action or situation is 'millions of people losing their lives.' Together, it says that the people were dying during the war, and when it ended in 1945, the people stopped dying (which may not be historically accurate).
We typically use the past simple to indicate the time, and the past perfect to indicate the action. We use these two tenses to talk about a situation in the past.
To talk about a future situation, we can use a future tense to indicate time and the future perfect to indicate the action.
I'm due to graduate in 4 months, by which time I will have written over 20 essays.
Here are some further examples using both time frames:
The plane landed at 9 o'clock in the morning, by which time I'd slept slept over 8 hours.
Traffic was murder and I got to work at 11, by which time I had spent more than 4 hours on the road in bumper-to-bumper traffic.
I plan to retire when I'm 55, by which time I will have sold off all my businesses to retire in the Riviera.
I'm getting married in December, by which time I will have spent almost $100,000, and I doubt it will be the last of it.
FINAL POINTS
Remember that we use these structures to join two clauses together to form one sentence. When you do this, make sure you have a relative pronoun (e.g. who or which) in there, and not another type of pronoun (e.g. them or then).
After a preposition, use 'which' for things, places or time, or 'whom' of people
Remember that 'what' is not a relative pronoun. We do not use it to join two clauses together.
After 'which, who or that', we can use a subject (subject pronoun or noun phrase) or a verb: The man who I met. The man who ate all the apples.
After 'where, when, whose and why', we use a subject (subject pronoun or noun phrase: This is where I met my wife. (correct) This is where met my wife. (incorrect) Tomorrow is when you can apply for the job. (correct) Tomorrow is when can you apply for the job. (incorrect; mistakenly used question form here) That is the reason why she is going. (correct) That is the reason why is she going. (incorrect; mistakenly used question form here)
Let's practice!
A. Gap Fill
Complete the gaps with the correct words.
I've heard all the positions have been filled, _____ _____ _____ I need not bother applying for it.
Your statement will arrive on the 14th, _____ _____ _____ you will have 2 weeks to finalise payment.
The entire class, _____ _____ _____ did any study, failed the test.
The government's two new economic policies, _____ _____ _____ were successful, have been scrapped.
Applications for the new position opened only yesterday, _____ _____ hundreds of applicants have already lodged submissions.
Next July marks 10 years as a teacher, _____ _____ _____ I will have taught over a thousand students from all over the world.
The computers in the library that we bought last year, _____ _____ _____ were destroyed in the fire, need to be replaced.
Demand for our product has tripled since the last financial year, _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ we may have to open a new warehouse and hire more staff.
ANSWERS:
in which case
at which point
none of whom / few of whom
neither of which
since when
by which time
all of which
as a result of which